King Henry III of ENGLAND, KING

                          Henry became king under a regency; William Marshal, 1st Earl ofPembroke, and later Pandulf acted as chief of government, while Peter desRoches was the king's guardian. At the time of Henry's accession, Englandwas torn by civil war and partially occupied by the French prince Louis(later King Louis VIII). In 1217, however, the French were defeated andwithdrew. Some of the English barons, Louis's former allies, continued tocause trouble; but Hubert de Burgh, chief justiciar and the greatestpower in the government after 1221, gradually restored order.  In 1227,Henry was granted full powers of kingship, and in 1230, with typicalwillfulness and against the advice of the justiciar, he led anunsuccessful expedition to Gascony and Brittany. In 1232 the kingdismissed Hubert de Burgh, and for the next two years the government wascontrolled by Peter des Roches and his nephew (or son), Peter des Rivaux.This administration, which consisted of trained civil servants (many ofthem Poitevin), was hated by the barons, and a baronial revolt in 1233and 1234 forced Henry to dismiss it.  Henry then assumed direct controlof the government, but despite frequent protests from the barons and fromhis brother, Richard, earl of Cornwall, the king continued to surroundhimself with French favorites, including relatives of Eleanor of Provence(whom he married in 1236) and his own Poitevin half brothers. The latterinvolved him in a disastrous campaign in 1242 to expel Louis IX of Francefrom Poitou.  In 1238, Henry had weathered a storm of baronial protestcaused by the secret marriage of his sister, Eleanor, to Simon deMontfort, Earl of Leicester. The king subsequently in 1248 sent Montfortto restore English authority in Gascogne, but he totally alienated hisformer friend when he recalled him in 1252 to answer charges of unjustadministration.  In 1254, Henry accepted the papal offer of the Kingdomof Sicily for his younger son, Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, agreeing inreturn to finance the conquest of the Kingdom from the Hohenstaufendynasty. However, the English barons, disturbed by the king'ssubservience to the papacy (which had already resulted in large papalexactions and an influx of foreign clergy into England) and angry thatthey had not been consulted, refused the necessary funds. Threatened bythe pope with excommunication, Henry was forced to come to terms with thebaronial opposition, now led by Simon de Montfort. The king accepted itsplan for conciliar government set forth in the Provisions of Oxford in1258, supplemented by the Provisions of Westminster in 1259.  Divisionsin the baronial party enabled Henry to repudiate in 1261 the provisions,with papal sanction, and in 1263 war broke out. An attempt to have KingLouis IX of France arbitrate the dispute led to the Mise of Amiens in1264, a declaration completely in the King's favor, and the war wasrenewed. Montfort won in 1264 the battle of Lewes and summoned in 1265his famous representative Parliament. However, the heir to the throne,Prince Edward (later Edward I), led the royal troops to decisive victoryat Evesham in 1265, where Simon de Montfort was killed, and by 1267 thebarons had capitulated. From 1267 on, Prince Edward actually ruled therealm, and Henry was King in name only.


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Henry became king under a regency; William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke,and later Pandulf acted as chief of government, while Peter des Rocheswas the king's guardian. At the time of Henry's accession, England wastorn by civil war and partially occupied by the French prince Louis(later King Louis VIII). In 1217, however, the French were defeated andwithdrew. Some of the English barons, Louis's former allies, continued tocause trouble; but Hubert de Burgh, chief justiciar and the greatestpower in the government after 1221, gradually restored order. In 1227,Henry was granted full powers of kingship, and in 1230, with typicalwillfulness and against the advice of the justiciar, he led anunsuccessful expedition to Gascony and Brittany. In 1232 the kingdismissed Hubert de Burgh, and for the next two years the government wascontrolled by Peter des Roches and his nephew (or son), Peter des Rivaux.This administration, which consisted of trained civil servants (many ofthem Poitevin), was hated by the barons, and a baronial revolt in 1233and 1234 forced Henry to dismiss it. Henry then assumed direct control ofthe government, but despite frequent protests from the barons and fromhis brother, Richard, earl of Cornwall, the king continued to surroundhimself with French favorites, including relatives of Eleanor of Provence(whom he married in 1236) and his own Poitevin half brothers. The latterinvolved him in a disastrous campaign in 1242 to expel Louis IX of Francefrom Poitou. In 1238, Henry had weathered a storm of baronial protestcaused by the secret marriage of his sister, Eleanor, to Simon deMontfort, Earl of Leicester. The king subsequently in 1248 sent Montfortto restore English authority in Gascogne, but he totally alienated hisformer friend when he recalled him in 1252 to answer charges of unjustadministration. In 1254, Henry accepted the papal offer of the Kingdom ofSicily for his younger son, Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, agreeing in returnto finance the conquest of the Kingdom from the Hohenstaufen dynasty.However, the English barons, disturbed by the king's subservience to thepapacy (which had already resulted in large papal exactions and an influxof foreign clergy into England) and angry that they had not beenconsulted, refused the necessary funds. Threatened by the pope withexcommunication, Henry was forced to come to terms with the baronialopposition, now led by Simon de Montfort. The king accepted its plan forconciliar government set forth in the Provisions of Oxford in 1258,supplemented by the Provisions of Westminster in 1259. Divisions in thebaronial party enabled Henry to repudiate in 1261 the provisions, withpapal sanction, and in 1263 war broke out. An attempt to have King LouisIX of France arbitrate the dispute led to the Mise of Amiens in 1264, adeclaration completely in the King's favor, and the war was renewed.Montfort won in 1264 the battle of Lewes and summoned in 1265 his famousrepresentative Parliament. However, the heir to the throne, Prince Edward(later Edward I), led the royal troops to decisive victory at Evesham in1265, where Simon de Montfort was killed, and by 1267 the barons hadcapitulated. From 1267 on, Prince Edward actually ruled the realm, andHenry was King in name only.